Who won the Battle of Passchendaele?

Voiceover: "The Flanders Offensive is remembered for its high casualties, debilitating mud and brutal fighting. Across both sides, there were nearly half a million casualties, for a battle that only advanced the British line by 5 miles in three months. It was, on paper, an Allied victory, but one that came at an immense cost and failed to achieve almost all of its objectives."

Ellen Parton, IWM curator: "The artworks and photographs commissioned during this period are some of the most dominant images of the war. They have influenced how the war on the Western Front is remembered, with men struggling and suffering in deep mud surrounded by broken trees and flooded shell craters."

Voiceover: "The high rate of casualties reinforced the Lions led by Donkeys view of indifferent commanders, well behind the front lines, sending thousands of young men to their deaths. The Flanders Offensive was a series of 8 battles, which by the 1920s had become known collectively as the Battle of Passchendaele. So how did this supposed Allied victory go so wrong? And should the battle have in fact been called off altogether?  

By April 1917 German forces had reinforced their positions along the Hindenburg line and the Allied attempts to break through during the Nivelle offensive had ended in disaster, failing to meet their objectives and causing heavy losses. The French losses at the Second Battle of the Aisne in particular led to mutinies, although in some areas huge advances were made. By mid-May 1917 the Arras sector returned to a stalemate.

Ellen Parton: "The French Army was unable to fight offensively. They needed time for their army to recover and were inclined to wait for American troops to arrive. Britain needed to divert German attention away from the areas most affected by the mutinies to reduce the pressure. The internal unrest in Russia after the February Revolution meant that the Russian Army was also in no position to fight. And so, Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig was commanding the only effective Allied army."  

Voiceover: "An offensive in Flanders made a lot of strategic sense. The Allies had held the Ypres Salient since 1914, but being surrounded by high ground on three sides made it an incredibly difficult area to push beyond. Haig believed that if they could push the German army off these ridges, they could go on to capture the vital Roulers rail hub which provided supplies and reinforcements to Germany’s army, weakening their ability to keep fighting. They could then advance to the coast to capture the German U-boat bases at Zeebrugge, Ostend and Bruges, which were responsible for sinking hundreds of Allied merchant ships. Politicians were initially reluctant to support the offensive, as they had no wish to see a repeat of the losses suffered during the Battle of the Somme the previous year. However, they were persuaded that the offensive was vital for keeping France and the Allies above water and could ultimately end the war with a decisive breakthrough.  

The offensive would see the British 2nd and 5th Armies, along with the French 1st, facing off against the German 4th Army. But it was a multinational offensive, and also involved Belgian, Canadian, Australian, Indian, New Zealand, South African, Southern Rhodesian and Newfoundland troops. Since suffering huge losses in 1916 the German army had spent the time developing and refining tactics. They had expected an offensive in Flanders and fortified their positions accordingly, with concrete pillboxes and shelters that gave them interlocking fields of fire. Their strategy of Defence in Depth meant that they could inflict maximum casualties from their lightly held front line before launching large counter attacks using specially trained assault divisions to retake the ground before the British forces could consolidate their position. Before the Allies main offensive could begin, it was crucial to first remove the German Army from the Messines Ridge to the south of Ypres, for a breakout of the salient to be possible."

Ellen Parton: "The Battle of Messines took place between the 7th and 14th of June 1917. It began with the detonation of 19 huge mines under the German lines. With innovative and careful planning, the battle proved to be a great tactical success. Within three hours almost all the objectives were taken."  

Voiceover: "Following the success at Messines, Haig wanted to push straight on to secure the domineering Gheluvelt Plateau which overlooked the entire salient, and could prove enormous strategic advantage. But, General Sir Herbert Plumer, commanding the 2nd Army, asked for a few days to prepare. Instead, Haig appointed 5th Army’s General Sir Hubert Gough to command the offensive. But Gough decided to wait anyway, losing the momentum of their initial victory."  

Ellen Parton: "The delay between Messines and the opening of the Third Battle of Ypres gave the German army more time to strengthen their defences. They were outnumbered in terms of ammunition, but they had more gas shells – including mustard gas, which they used to great effect to disrupt preparations."

Voiceover: "The preparatory artillery bombardment began on the 22nd of July 1917. However, political delays in approving the offensive lengthened the barrage to 3 times longer than planned. It churned up the ground, used up time and resources and still failed to destroy the German defensive positions."

Ellen Parton: "The Flanders soil comprised London clay mixed with sand and silt. On this flat, reclaimed area of land, the water table was very near the surface and the ground simply could not absorb persistent rain. Before the war, a complex and fragile drainage system had prevented the fields from becoming waterlogged but this was damaged by the years of fighting and destroyed during the 9-day bombardment proceeding the offensive."  

Voiceover: "Finally, the order was given to begin the attack."

Ellen Parton: "Here we have a signal which was sent by a Brigade Major to the regiments of his Brigade informing them of zero hour. You can see it is marked “Very Secret” and reads “Zero hour will be at 3.50am tomorrow 31st July”. This signal announces the beginning of the Battle of Pilckem Ridge and the opening of the Third Battle of Ypres."

Voiceover: "The Battle of Pilckhem Ridge was the opening attack of The Flanders Offensive. The plan was for 5th Army to attack from the southern flank, supported by the 2nd, whilst the French First Army would take the North, with the key objective of securing the Gheluvent Plataeu."  

Ellen Parton: "On 31 July 1917, Lieutenant Wilfred Forster led B company of the 13 Welsh Regiment at the Battle of Pilckem Ridge. In his diary for that day, he writes “Zero was fixed for 3.50am. At 3am, rum was issued and at 3.40 I gave orders for the first line to jump the parapet and wait silently outside about 25 yards off for all the other lines to form up.”    

Forster carried this map during the battle. What is particularly interesting about it is that it is a visual record of the muddy conditions in which they fought. The map has been folded to show the section he was attacking, and that section has been discoloured by the mud. You can see Candle Trench and Galliwitz Farm marked on the map which he mentions in his diary. He highlights the difficulty of identifying places following the bombardment. Uncertain of where they were he writes “Was this Gallwitz Farm? Maps and compass to the rescue. It was difficult to say, for our shells had rendered everywhere an unrecognisable mass – a wilderness of shell holes.”  

Eventually they reached their objective, but consolidation was difficult due to moving supplies forward. He writes “Owing to Boche shelling I decided to vacate our temporary Company Headquarters in Candle Trench and establish at the trench we were digging on the Black Line left of the Station Strong point. It was but a shell hole truly, though better a shell hole than a shell.... The night was wet and cold. The trench was getting filled more and more with water and no rations came, nor water.”    

Voiceover: "The initial assault did achieve some success, particularly to the north and centre, but but the Germans mounted a strong counterattack that afternoon which pushed the Allies back with significant casualties on both sides. The rain had started in the afternoon and did not stop for the next 3 days. Hamstrung by the mud and unable to secure plateau, the offensive stalled."

Ellen Parton: "This is the diary of Arthur Roberts. Arthur was a black British soldier with Caribbean heritage, serving with the 2nd Battalion, the Royal Scots Fusiliers. He was also at Ypres and writes in his diary: “I saw sights that I never wish to see again. It was terrible and yet it was wonderful”. In later written reminiscences he writes that “One moment we were walking up to our middles in water, the next we were wobbling and balancing over the bodies of our unfortunate comrades.” Ypres was a dangerous and difficult place to be."

Voiceover: "On the 16th of August the Allies attempted a push north at the Battle of Langemarck. They needed to get to the coast in time for the coming high tides which would allow for a coordinated amphibious attack on the coastal ports. But advances were continually pushed back by effective German counterattacks."   

Ellen Parton: "In front of me you can see a duckboard that was excavated at Martha House near St. Julien. On the 16 August 1917, the first day of the Battle of Langemarck, the 9th Battalion of the Royal Irish Fusiliers went forward towards Martha House and were met with strong opposition from the enemy. They suffered very heavy casualties from the outset and were forced back. The Battalion war diary describes the ground as “very much cut up by shell fire and very heavy to cross”. Martha House was one of the last German strong points to be taken. Duckboards like this one were laid out in tracks around Ypres to help men and equipment move more easily through the treacherous mud. However, these duckboard tracks were targeted by enemy fire and were easy to fall from, especially when wet or at night."  

Voiceover: "By the end of August, it was clear that a decisive breakthrough was out of reach. Reassessing the situation, Haig replaced General Gough with General Plumer, who planned the next phase, starting with the battle of the Menin Road Ridge. This battle would begin on the 20th of September and last for five days. More artillery had  been brought into the salient, and an increase in close air support from the Royal Flying Corps meant that the Allies successfully pushed back German forces, and this time, were better able to fend of counterattacks."

Ellen Parton: "This whistle belonged to Second Lieutenant Montague Moore who served with the 15th Battalion of the Hampshire Regiment, and he used it to signal to his men whilst in battle. On the 20th September 1917, during the Battle of the Menin Road Ridge, Moore volunteered to lead 70 men in a fresh attack near Tower Hamlets on the Gheluvelt Plateau. Despite losing 65 men, Moore successfully bombed a large enemy dug out and with the help of around 60 reinforcements, he held that position against German counterattacks for 36 hours when, with only ten men left, he took advantage of a thick mist to withdraw. Although Moore’s attack was unable to consolidate the position, he showed great bravery and endurance in the face of the enemy and was awarded a Victoria Cross for his actions."

Voiceover: "A combination of improved weather, effective planning, and Plumer’s use of bite and hold tactics with limited objectives meant that the Allies made significant progress to secure the ridges at Menin Road, Polygon Wood and Broodseinde from September into October. Encouraged by these successes, Haig continued the offensive despite the rain returning at the Battle of Broodseinde."

Ellen Parton: "Later, Crown Prince Rupprecht, a senior German Commander, stated that the weather at Ypres was “our most effective ally”."  

Voiceover: "The battlefield quickly returned to a quagmire and the following battle of Poelcapelle on the 9th of October was a disaster. With the Allies unable to effectively move through the terrible ground conditions, any captured ground was quickly retaken by the defending Germans. To make matters worse, delays in communication had led Plumer and Haig to believe a considerable advance had been made during the battle, when in reality it had already been retaken by the Germans. This would lead them to plan the next attack on Passchendaele Village for the 12th of October. Due to these miscommunications, the First Battle of Passchendaele would see an Allied advance begin around a kilometre further away from the village than planned. By the time commanders had realised the error, it was too late to make any changes to the plan. As a result the attack was easily defended against, and only marginal ground was gained by the Allies. It was decided that no further attacks would take place until effective communications were restored, and the weather had improved.

The troops were exhausted and living in appalling conditions, but in order to secure higher and drier ground for the troops to spend the winter, another attack was ordered for the 26th of October. The second Battle of Passchendaele was the 8th and final battle of the Flanders Offensive. A series of assaults were planned over the next 2 weeks, with a few days between each one. At this time the Canadian Corps were brought in to relieve the Australian and New Zealand infantry. 

The subsequent attacks captured the village, as well as the high ground along the Passchendaele Ridge on the 10th of November. Ten days later, Haig made the decision to end the offensive and reinforce their current position. The Battle of Passchendaele was over, and with it any hope of capturing the Rouler Rail hub and German U-Boat bases."

Ellen Parton: "Although some of the battles were considered a success, overall, the Third Battle of Ypres failed to achieve its objectives. The British front line advanced by a maximum of only 5 miles by the end of the offensive which lasted over three months. The Allies did secure the ridges around Ypres but Passchendaele Ridge – the scene of hard-fighting and heavy casualties - was given up with little resistance only a few months later during the German Spring Offensive of 1918. In dry conditions, an infantry advance could average 100 yards in four minutes. The weather turned the battlefield into liquid mud, and by November 1917, they could not even move 100 yards in twelve minutes. It took the artillery even longer to move forward, which slowed down an advance and gave the German army some respite. About 300 tanks became stuck during the battle."

Voiceover: "Casualties were high for both sides - there were around 250,000 British casualties including around 70,000 killed. German casualties were around 220,000. The Third Battle of Ypres remains controversial. Debates focus on whether the offensive should have been stopped earlier and whether it should have even been fought at all. Sir Douglas Haig is often criticised for continuing attacks past the point of any real gain, and this is the case for the Third Battle of Ypres. The offensive was approved by the war cabinet on condition that they could stop it if it failed to achieve its objectives. As early as the end of August it was clear that there would be no decisive breakthrough, yet the offensive was allowed to continue."

Ellen Parton: "It was a battle of attrition. Both sides suffered high casualty rates. Some historians say that the German losses proved more detrimental because the Allies had fresh American troops arriving in 1918. Haig believed his attritional campaigns made the victories of 1918 possible."